Drava

Exploring Ancient Cosmologies

Parmenides (c. 450 BCE) The Sphere of All, Wreaths of Fire

Parmenides of Elea in Italy challenges conventional physics by arguing against the existence of motion, change, and differences in matter (quoted by Simplicius in Phys. 146.5). Despite this, he describes the “beliefs of mortals,” representing his view of the deceptive physical world Ionic Thought’s Influence, akin to the Buddhist concept of maya. Parmenides envisions heavenly bodies as concentrations of fire-vapor, regulated by “Necessity” to move between an inner “wreath” of fire and an outer solid sphere (Aetius 2.7.1). It is unclear whether he perceived the “wreath” as an asteroid belt and the outer shell as a true sphere, leaving ambiguity about the shape of the earth.

Empedocles and Anaxagoras Reflections of Light

Empedocles of Acragas (mid-5th century BCE) seeks

Concepts of Celestial Wheels and Bowls of Fire

This section explores the impact of Ionic thought on early Greek cosmology, focusing on key figures such as Xenophanes of Colophon and Heraclitus of Ephesus. Their contributions, building upon Milesian theories, delve into the condensation of heavenly bodies into fiery clouds and circular courses, providing insights into the evolving understanding of the universe.

Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570-490 BCE)

Xenophanes migrated from Ionia to Italy, fleeing the Medes’ takeover, and carried forward Milesian theory. While emphasizing the de-anthropomorphization of god Anaximander of Miletus, he shared the view of heavenly bodies condensing from earth’s exhalations into fiery clouds. Similar to Anaximines, Xenophanes envisioned these bodies following circular courses, conceived as bands or zones, and becoming obscured behind high parts of the earth (Aetius 2.20.3).

Anaximander of Miletus (c. 550 BCE) Exploring Celestial Fire and Wheels

Around 550 BCE, Anaximander of Miletus presented innovative ideas about the cosmos, envisioning the Earth as a cylinder surrounded by air and fire, likened to the bark of a tree. His cosmology aimed to explain celestial phenomena through physical and mathematical terms, introducing the concept of heavenly bodies as wheels of fire enclosed by air. This article explores Anaximander’s celestial theories and the evolving understanding of the universe in early Greek thought Parmenides Empedocles and Anaxagoras.

Anaximander’s Celestial Scheme

Anaximander proposed a unique celestial scheme where heavenly bodies, described as wheels of fire akin to chariot wheels, were enclosed by air. He depicted their light as an axle, pipe, vent, or bellows-nozzle, emitting fire jets. Eclipses and lunar variations were attributed to the opening

Mitanni Kingdom and Cultural Influence

Establishment and Rule of the Mitanni Kingdom

The Hurri civilization emerged in eastern Anatolia and was governed by the Mitanni kingdom, led by a king with Indian descent. Positioned between the Hittites and Assyria, the Hurrians originated from the mountains south of the Caspian Sea. In the late 15th century B.C., the beginning of the Hittite Empire saw an increase in Hurrian names within the royal family Hatti Civilization.

Distinct Hurri Language and Cultural Legacy

The Hurri language stood as a distinct entity, separate from others. The culture and language of the Hurri civilization were extensively utilized by Urartians and Hittites in the subsequent centuries. Their gods exhibited similarities to Hittite deities, leading many to suspect a Hurrian influence.

Title: Heraclitus of Ephesus: Influential Greek Philosopher

Introduction to Heraclitus

He

The Hatti Civilization (2500-2000 B.C.) Ancient Anatolian Settlers

Ancient Hatti Civilization

The Hattis, among the earliest settlers in Anatolian history, ruled central Anatolia for approximately 500 years. Preferring small city kingdoms, they had a distinct language compared to other influential Anatolian civilizations. Mesopotamian influences are evident in Hatti art and culture.

Key Cities and Religious Beliefs

Prominent cities like Mahmatlar, Horoztepe, Alacahoyuk, and Hattus were situated within the Kizilirmak (Red River) bend. The Hattis believed in multiple gods representing various natural elements in animal form. Statues of their popular gods can be found in major Turkish museums.

Hatti and Hittite Principalities Period (2000-1750 B.C.)

Indo-European Migration and Coexistence

In the late 3rd millennium B.C., a significant migration occurred from North Europe to the milder south. The Hittites, part of the Indo-Europ

A Historical Overview

Ancient Capital and Trade Hub

Gordium is believed to have been the capital of Meshech, located where the Royal Road of Persian Kings intersected the Sangarius (Sakarya) River. This positioning made it a bustling commercial center, as noted in the Old Testament, Ezekiel 27:13, mentioning Meshech’s involvement in the slave and bronze trade.

Early Settlement and Hittite Influence

Excavations over the past four decades revealed its occupation as early as the third millennium B.C. Between 2000 and 1200 B.C., Gordium served as a significant Hittite outpost with Assyrian colonists. The Phrygians settled in the 9th century Hurri Civilization, marking the city’s peak prosperity in the 8th century.

Decline and Resurgence

Cimmerian invasions in 690 B.C. led to the destruction of Gordium, but it was rebuilt by the Lydians. In 547-546 B.C., Cyrus and his army destroyed the city

Excavation Budget and Key Supporters

The excavation budget, approximately 9 million Austrian shillings, is sourced from government funds, funds promoting scientific research, and donations by private sponsors. Since 1970, the Society of the Friends of Ephesos has been a major patron, contributing significantly to Austrian excavations. Notable projects, like reconstructing the Library of Celsus Sustaining Ephesos, were realized with support from the firm Kallingerbau. Recent major endeavors, such as roofing and conserving the “Hanghäuser” or restoring the Great Theatre, were made possible through active sponsor support.

History and Monuments of Ephesos

The history of Ephesos, located at the silted-up harbor at the mouth of the Kaystros (Küçük Menderes), traces back to the Neolithic period, reaching its zenith in Greco-Roman antiquity. The city experienced a final flourishing during the Selçuk dynasty of Aydi

Post-World War II Challenges

After the Second World War, the situation for Austrian researchers at Ephesos was challenging. Only eight years after the war’s conclusion did Austrian researchers return. The Austrian Academy of Sciences, renewing its patronage in 1995, provided financial support. Research continuity depended on government ministries and sponsors, including the Austrian National Bank, Mautner Markhof Ephesos An Ancient Metropolis, the Basel Foundation “Pro Epheso,” and equipment donations.

Uninterrupted Research Since 1954

Since 1954, research at Ephesos has been continuous, with annual excavation permissions granted by Turkish authorities. Today, the focus extends beyond uncovering ancient ruins to systematically exploring over a thousand years of the former Metropolis of Asia’s history. Interdisciplinary collaboration, involving archaeology and natural sciences like historic

Exploration and History

Ephesos, located on Turkey’s west coast, served as the former capital of the Roman province of Asia and held the distinction of being one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. Since 1895, it has been a focal point of research for Austrian archaeological science, leading to the establishment of the Austrian Archaeological Institute (ÖAI) with Ephesos as a central hub for international research.

The History of Research at Ephesos

In 1863, English architect John Turtle Wood initiated the search for the Artemision, dedicating seven years to the quest. Despite discovering the temple’s marble pavement in 1869 Financing and Monumental Achievements at Ephesos, the expected finds did not materialize, leading to the discontinuation of excavations in 1874. The vision to transform Ephesos into an Austrian research site was realized through the efforts of Otto Bennd

Alexander seemingly didn’t plan for his empire’s survival without him. On his deathbed, when asked about his successor, he simply said, “the strongest.” This vague response fueled a decade of power struggles among his generals, known as the Wars of the Diadochi.

After Alexander’s death, the generals divided the empire into personal kingdoms, a period marked by conflicts, betrayals, and shifting loyalties among mercenaries. Antigonus Monophthalmos aimed for a united empire under one ruler, while others sought to expand their territories.

Alexander’s inadequate

The chaos arose due to Alexander’s inadequate succession planning; the only heirs were a mentally impaired half-brother and a posthumous son. Attempts to maintain a central authority failed as various generals declared themselves provincial governors. A brief collaboration ensued to suppress rebellions, but in 321 B.C., rivalry escalated Read more